Review of 'The History of the Peloponnesian War': Warrior and Witness

The Origins of the Peloponnesian War

In 431 B.C., Athens and Sparta entered into a conflict that would last nearly 30 years. This war, known as the Peloponnesian War, marked a turning point in ancient Greek history. Nearly 50 years earlier, in 480 B.C., these two city-states had worked together to lead the Hellenic alliance that successfully repelled a Persian invasion. Following this period of relative peace, Athens grew into a powerful maritime empire, while Sparta remained an agrarian oligarchy. Old rivalries resurfaced, dividing the Greek world into two opposing alliances: the Delian League, led by Athens, and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta.

The war was sparked by a seemingly minor conflict in the colony of Epidamnus, which escalated into a civil war. Corinth, a Spartan ally, intervened, while Corcyra, a city that had founded Epidamnus, sought help from Athens. This dispute eventually spiraled into a broader conflict that engulfed the entire Greek world.

Thucydides: The Historian of a Transformative Conflict

A highborn Athenian named Thucydides recognized the significance of this conflict early on. As British scholar Robin Waterfield notes in his translation of "The Peloponnesian War," Thucydides began writing as soon as hostilities began, anticipating a conflict that would be more significant than any before it. His third-person narrative, however, masks his own firsthand experience. He contracted the plague that ravaged Athens between 430 and 426 B.C. and was later elected as a general in the Athenian army. In 424 B.C., he was exiled for 20 years after failing to prevent the Spartan advance—a personal setback that forced him to reappear in his own account.

The Nature of the War

Athens, a commercial democracy, relied on its naval power to expand its influence. Sparta, on the other hand, was an agrarian oligarchy with a strong military tradition based on its hoplite forces. The war saw Athens dominating at sea, while Sparta devastated Athenian farmland. Each side was eventually forced to fight on the other's territory, leading to a decade of destruction before a truce was established in 421 B.C. This truce, however, did not last, and the war resumed with the disastrous Sicilian Expedition of 415–413 B.C., where Athens attempted to conquer Syracuse, a Spartan ally. This failure allowed Persia to intervene, tipping the balance in favor of Sparta.

Thucydides' work ends abruptly in 411 B.C., and Xenophon's "Hellenica" continues the story until 404 B.C., when Athens surrendered and its Long Walls were destroyed "to the music of flute-girls."

Herodotus vs. Thucydides: Two Approaches to History

The Greek historical method is often contrasted through the works of Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus, a storyteller from Halicarnassus, focused on the causes of conflicts, particularly between the Greeks and Persians. Thucydides, a political analyst from Athens, sought to uncover the "truest cause" of events, emphasizing the role of human actions and decisions over fate.

Their approaches differ significantly: Herodotus presents a rich tapestry of stories, while Thucydides offers a more analytical perspective. As historian Thomas Babington Macaulay noted, their methods are like "a portrait differs from the representation of an imaginary scene." Yet both sought to preserve the "traces of human events" and the "fame" of those involved.

Thucydides’ Insights on Democracy and Power

Thucydides' mastery of perspective allows him to explore the complexities of democratic politics, where psychology and strategy intersect. For him, the true cause of the war was the growth of Athenian power, which alarmed the Spartans and forced them into conflict. However, Mr. Waterfield challenges the traditional translation of the verb "anagkazai" as "inevitable," arguing that the Spartans did not have to enter the conflict.

British novelist John Buchan, recalling his reading of Thucydides during World War I, recognized the parallels between the collapse of the old regime and the changing world order. Thucydides mapped how individual and group psychology shaped the course of war, highlighting the power of words and charisma in democratic societies.

Pericles and the Decline of Athenian Democracy

Pericles, Thucydides' hero, represented the ideal of democratic leadership, balancing rhetoric with restraint. His funeral oration celebrated the virtues of democracy, citing patriotism, bravery, and "true mental courage." However, after Pericles' death from plague in 429 B.C., the political landscape shifted. Cleon, a demagogue, seized control, and the war became defined by the brutal tactics of Spartan general Brasidas and the populist policies of Cleon.

The "Melian dialogue" highlights the harsh realities of power, where "the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must." This principle, central to Thucydides' work, reflects the amoral nature of force in international relations.

Translating Thucydides: A Legacy of Interpretation

Since Thomas Hobbes made the first direct English translation of Thucydides in 1628, numerous translators have approached his work. Mr. Waterfield's interpretation emphasizes a Hobbesian view of power, where the victor defines morality. The "Landmark Thucydides," edited by Robert Strassler, remains a comprehensive resource for readers, offering maps, footnotes, and insightful commentary.

For those new to Thucydides, starting with the "Landmark" edition is recommended. Comparing it with other translations, such as Mr. Waterfield’s, can deepen one's understanding of this complex and influential historical work.